1. Active Learning

This page addresses: What is active learning?  Who does one engage in active learning?  How can an instructor determine whether active learning is taking place?  What can an instructor do to foster active learning?

May 3, 2012

What is ‘Active Learning’?

Who does it, and how can you tell when they are doing it?

Anyway, what good is it?

As an instructor, how can you get people to do more of it?  And for learners who don’t currently do it, how can you incite them to start?  Or should you even try?

A good place to start is Elizabeth Barkley’s textbook, Student Engagement Techniques  (Jossey-Bass 2010).  She asserts that learning outcomes are improved if students are engaged in their learning, and proceeds to propose a model of student engagement that consists of the overlap between student motivation and active learning.  She points out that active learning is “an umbrella term that now refers to several methods of instruction” (p. 16).  She also states that, from a learner’s point of view, “Active learning means that the mind is actively engaged.”  (p. 17).

The Youtube video created by Marion and Howard Brady titled “Race To The Top: Passive or Active Learning?” does a great job of framing the discussion.  In it, the authors pose a hypothetical situation where learners are taught photography by reading about it in a textbook and being tested afterwards – in other words, never actually touching a camera.

Where’s the ‘Beef’?

It makes sense intuitively that active learning contributes to better learning outcomes, but what evidence is there that this is actually true?

Michael Prince of the Department of Chemical Engineering at Bucknell University surveys the literature on this topic and summarizes what he found in a July 2004 article titled “Does Active Learning Work?  A Review of the Research” which appears in the Journal of Engineering Education, 93(3).  In this article, Prince defines “Active Learning” as “any instructional method that engages students in the learning process.” (p. 1)  Adding to this, he points out that “Active Learning is often contrasted to the traditional lecture where students passively receive information.” (p. 1)

Prince points out that the balance of evidence collected over that past several decades suggests that Active Learning does indeed contribute to several kinds of improved learning outcomes.

“Great,” I thought.  “Just list the tactics and techniques I should adopt.”  But of course, it’s not that simple.

Prince cautions that Active Learning is such a broad topic and includes so many different techniques that it is not at all a cut-and-dried matter to measure its impact.  So, while the results of studies tend to suggest a number of positive contributions, there is no clear-cut and unequivocal pattern.  Neither is it easy to quantify the benefits.
Throughout his article Prince notes that there is evidence that three approaches – collaborative learning (in which students work together on a given task and do not compete with each other), cooperative learning (in which, a the name suggests, students cooperate with each other but each submit their own work), and problem based learning – tend to increase student engagement, as well as contribute to positive attitudes and an increase in self-esteem.  But he also points out that the evidence is ambiguous as to whether there is any improvement in test scores or exam results.

This leaves the instructor in a position of having to decide whether to proceed based somewhat on ‘faith’ (although with at least some evidence to encourage that ‘faith).  He concludes his article by reminding readers that “ teaching cannot be reduced to formulaic methods and active learning is not a cure for all educational problems.” (p. 7)

“Darn!” I thought when reading this.  “I was hoping there was a button I could just push.”

What Button Do I Push?

While there is no button to push, there are certain ways to determine what Active Learning techniques to select, and how best to implement them.  A very specific and useful methodology to accomplish this is set out by Daniel Bell and Jahna Kahrhoff in the Active Learning Handbook, published by the Faculty Development Center at Webster University. (www.webster.edu/fdc/alhb/alhb2006.pdf)  Bell and Kahrhoff describe how to use four continua to accomplish this task  (Task Complexity, Course objectives, Classroom Interaction, and the Continuum of Student Experiences).

What’s An ‘Adult Learner’?

“Am I all set then?” I asked myself.  But the answer is “Not Quite.”  One of the continua has to do with student experiences, and this raises the whole issue of: Just who are your learners?

Angela Kemna provided a succinct summary of the characteristics of Adult Learners in a PIDP 3250 discussion thread, including the following:

  • Maturity expects respect.
  • Goal-oriented and relevant-oriented.
  • Autonomous and self-directed.
  • Practical and problem-solvers.
  • Logistical considerations: family and care responsibilities, careers, social commitments, time, money, schedules, transportation, health, being tired (exhausted from all activities throughout their day), juggling classes with family or other committed activities.
  • Aging concerns: Am I the oldest in the class? How can I participate or keep up with the younger students.
  • Insufficient confidence: poor prior learning experiences, fear of failure, fear of capability to study, keep up,retain, fear of looking foolish, fear of new technology, and getting into the flow of learning, studying,etc.
  • Effect of employment: may be a requirement to upgrade or re-educate due to employment layoffs or injuries, etc. May be a new skill their employer requires, help with promotion at work, new techniques,skills, or technologies moving into their work situation which is required to compete and be successful in their workplace.

Adult Learners vs Youth Learners

These themes summarize some of the key observations about Adult Learners, how they differ from other learners.  Some articles and videos that help elaborate on this themes include two sites that provide a handy summary of the differences between Adult Learners and Youth Learners (with implications for instructors): One is from the Rochester Institute of Technology, and another summary originally created by Ohio State University’s National Center for Research and Vocational Education on a LInC site  .

How Adult Learners Differ From Each Other

Not only do Adult Learners differ from Youth Learners, they also differ from each other.  For example, some Adult Learners may be engaging in the course for no other reason than to gain a credential that is required, related to their employment  (a.k.a. “getting their ticket punched”).  Adult Learners in this circumstance may be highly focused on “What do I have to know to pass the exam?” and impatient about exploring topics that do not have immediate relevance to passing the course.  On the other hand, other Adult Learners may be engaging n a course purely out of interest for the subject (e.g. a hobby), or to help foster personal growth, or to gain a different perspective or skill set related to their professional development.  In each of these circumstances, an Adult Leaner may be much more interested in exploring the topic, rather than being focused solely on acquiring certain very specific knowledge or skills required to ‘get their ticket punched’.

And as the saying goes, “We are all individuals,” and each Adult Learner will have a slightly different set of personality traits and circumstances so that, even if the classroom is filled with Adult Learners who have the same purpose for taking the course (e.g., hobby), their approach to the course may differ considerably from the approach of other learners in the class, whose circumstances and personalities are different.  A great illustration of this is presented by Susan Cain in a TED Talk.  Ms Cain comments how differences between introverts and extroverts.  Her comments make the implications for how Active Leaning strategies need to be adjusted to fit the individual are very clear.

Differences in Levels of Motivation – Adult Learners Who Appear to Be ‘Unwilling’ To Learn

What does being ‘unwilling to learn’ actually mean?  The attitude of being ‘unwilling to learn‘ can amount to being unwilling to engage in the learning process.  The evidence of this attitude would be a reluctance or outright refusal to engage in Active Learning.

What motivation (or lack of motivation) causes this?  In terms of an Adult Learner, it may be a failure to see the relevance of what is being learned, or a lack of confidence about the learner’s ability to succeed.
A classic example of this situation that has been much discussed is the current learning style of Millennials.

So, What’s With Millennials?
For example, Ian Crone and Kathy MacKay – two deans of students at Elmhurst College – have authored an article about Millennials at college titled “Motivating Today’s College Students” .   In the article, Crone and MacKay argue that Millennials have grown up in “an age of convenience and consumption” and that, as a result, they regard a college education as a commodity (in their words, “yet another acquisition” rather than a process in which to immerse themselves).  The authors describe Millennials’ as being inclined to engage only superficially with the educational process (i.e. being unwilling to learn).  They challenge instructors to find ways to entice this cohort to become “intentional architects of their own learning, actively setting goals, exploring, reflecting, and integrating the acquired knowledge and experience into existing worldviews.”

Much has been written about how Millennials are different, and what must be done to induce them to engage in the learning process.  These ideas – often stated as facts and dogma (e.g., use more technology) – are hotly debated.

Reading the article by Crone and MacKay, I shouted ‘Yes!” in recognition of some of the behaviours they described.  I was able to match many of the behaviours described with certain faces I have seen in my own classroom. Feeling validated and ‘hot on the trail’, I immediately plunged back into the Internet to search for techniques for engaging Millennials so I could ‘capture the little buggers’ and get them ‘sorted out’ and properly launched on the ‘correct path’.   (Can you tell already that I’m in for a fall, here?)  Soon I located a number of sites that amounted to advice columns.  But then, I also located some ‘teacher forums, where the participants questioned some of the sweeping generalizations and prescribed solutions that have been articulated.

As I continued to view sites and read articles, a few nagging thoughts in the back of my mind took root and grew.  “How different are Millennials, really?” I wondered.  “And does it really come down to the instructor adjusting his style, or is there a deeper motivational issue?”

First of all, I must declare that I actually have a great deal of admiration and affection for Millennials.  And yes, to the extent that it is possible to generalize about a whole generation, they do have some characteristics that are very different from the characteristics of my own generation (Baby Boomer) in general.

It’s the phrase “in general” that, for me, is the key to the understanding the whole situation and deciding what to do.

Because of their age, many Millennials are still in a formative stage.  One might even call it a transformational stage.  So it is very important that instructors develop means of investigating where each individual learner is at in this process.  The danger is to jump to conclusions because of the way Millennials have been characterized, and assume that the proposed ‘fix’ will be sufficient to engage every Millennial in your classroom.

ANY young person from ANY generation may have some of the generalized characteristics that have been ascribed to Millennials.

When I was 22 years old, did I sometimes ‘acquire’ credentials such as university courses without engaging deeply with the material, or reflecting on its meaning and implications for my worldview?  You betcha.

I pride myself on my ability to concentrate, e.g. to listen to  very long and detailed explanation / lecture.  But I can only do this for things that I am motivated to learn about.  I have noticed Millennials who are able to concentrate on something for an extended period as well, provided they are motivated.  So is the issue ‘what generation are you in’?  Or is it motivation?  It’s my belief that it has more to do with making sure that the right steps are taken to incite sufficient motivation (or give vent to it).

Accordingly, I found myself reflecting on the list of prescribed “do’s and dont’s” for Millennials, and thinking about how these things apply to my instructional behaviour.   Some examples:

  1.  “Be relevant” advises one educational sage.  “Show students how what you’re teaching will help them  be successful in areas where they want to be successful.”  Hmmm.  Good advice.  Hardly unique to  Millennials.  And in fact, thinking back, on occasions when I have made a point of doing this, students were generally more engaged.  I probably should make a point of doing this more often, rather than assuming that the relevance is self-evident.  For business people who have had extensive experience in the business world, certain things will be self-evident.  But for most of my students, who have not yet had an opportunity to work in a ‘business setting’, they will need to have the relevance explained.  Like Rockefeller who reportedly hired a caddy specifically to intone ‘Keep your head down’ while preparing to hit a golf ball, when I review my lesson plans before each class, I should pencil in “EXPLAIN RELEVANCE” before each topic.  From the perspective of the expectancy x value model that Elizabeth Barkely describes (based on J.E Brophy’s work) in her textbook Student Engagement Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty  (Jossey-Bass), this addresses both expectancy and also value.  It addresses value in the sense that it involves directly explaining how the material will be useful. And, in a less direct way, it also reinforces positive expectations about success because, from the learner’s point of view, by connecting the ideas to something they are interested in (and therefore likely to be more confident about), it is likely they will tend to feel that their prospects for succeeding in this particular course (as opposed to succeeding in their career after graduation) are good.
  2. “Care” – In other words, since Millennials have been closely coddled by their parents, who take a personal interest in the learner, show your Millennials that you actually care about their success, not just your subject matter.   I think I’m reasonably good at this, but one way I could improve is by engaging learners in more one-on-one conversations to find out more about what it is they wish to succeed at.  It’s one thing for me to express a desire to help the entire class succeed in their careers.  Being more specific and particular would be more convincing, and most likely, more motivating for learners.  This tactic primarily addresses expectancy.  When learners feel the instructor knows who they are and cares enough to help them succeed, they are likely to feel that their prospects for success in the course are enhanced.  Will this entice them to ‘engage’?  Perhaps (i.e. no guarantees).
  3. “Use More Technology” or “Use Technology More”.  In fact, I am working toward this.  But I’ll give myself credit that I have been cautious in order to ensure that the technology I am introducing is actually helping to engage learners in the course material.  This includes using cartoons and Xtranormal videos.  I am considering using twitter to provide a means for ‘shy’ students or overseas students who are not confident in their English-language skills to ask questions or to contribute to discussions.  However, some students are so focused on grades (rather than learning) they are hyper-skittish about ‘doing what they are supposed to do’ or ‘doing it right’, that I want to introduce this and other measures as a one-time experiment rather than announcing on Day 1 of the course that this will be a permanent feature of class meetings.  Like the previous tactic, use of technology primarily addresses expectancy.  When learners feel that the tools being used to address the material are familiar and comfortable, they may well be more inclined to feel that the content will be more accessible, even if it is not ‘familiar’ or ‘comfortable’.
  4. “Emphasize group work and allow students to get to know one another.”  Each course I teach includes a group project.  I have been assuming to far too great an extent that my learners know how to operate in a group.  After all, they’re Millennials, right?  Silly me 😉  Bearing in mind the motivational expectancy x valuemodel it would make sense that I engage groups in discussions about how they are going to work as a group to accomplish the next task at hand – i.e., what things need to be accomplished and how they will be accomplished.  As things now stand, I allow groups a little time in class to discuss each group assignment among themselves.  I have observed that, because we are a ‘commuter college’ what gets discussed is” 1) which section each person will write (i.e. independently from all the other members of the group) and 2) when it will be due, so that it can be assembled into one document.  This often results in ‘group’ papers that are very uneven in quality and redundant.   There is little actual ‘group work’.  By pressing the issue of what needs to be addressed by the group through investigation and discussion, there is a greater likelihood that there will be an exchange of ideas and some actual debate and reflection (i.e., and, gawdnose, maybe even learning).I believe these four refinements will contribute to motivation, and help overcome the ‘not willing to engage / not willing to learn’ challenge.  HOW I apply the principles might vary from class to class, but I recognize that they should be done for every course I teach and every class I convene, regardless the generation the learners.

Active Learning – What’s the Range of Options?

So, with all this diversity within the population of Adult Learners, it is clear that instructors have an opportunity – as well as an obligation – to tailor their use of Active Learning tactics to the learners they find in their courses.

The sky’s the limit.  In fact, as Wendy Drexler’s highly entertaining and thought provoking Youtube video about a technique known as Connectivitsm shows, it would be possible for an instructor to play the role of an ‘instigator’ who provides no classes whatever but instead, ‘encourages’ a learner to search out and connect with sources of information and insight (in this case, the psychology of Americans) and puts together an end product (such as a blog) that reports upon and summarizes the student’s learning on the subject.  This is an example of Active Learning ‘in the extreme’.  Although it may be ‘extreme’, it is not that uncommon.  The technique has been used in higher level courses for what must be eons.  What is perhaps new is that the technique is being used with younger and younger learners.  In the Wexler video, the example focuses on a high school student.

Not all Active Learning tactics need to be ‘extreme’.    After all, simple classroom or group discussions are a form of Active Learning.

 

Returning to Michael Prince’s Principle

  1. As noted earlier, Michael Prince wrote  that “teaching cannot be reduced to formulaic methods and Active learning is not the cure for all educational problems.”  Experimentation will help instructors discover what works best for them – and for their learners – and when.
  2. Accomplishing this will be facilitated by addressing related issues such as:
    • Thinking skills (e.g. creative and critical thinking, as well as meta-cognition).

Please note: A Bibliography of the sources used in the development of this page appears on page 8 Resources (Bibliography).

 

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